Propaganda, disinformation and elections

As of 1 October 2026.

This subject area concerns rules on the content of cross-border communication and on the integrity of public debate and elections. Some of the oldest instruments on this site belong here: the 1936 Broadcasting Convention obliges its parties to stop broadcasts inciting war or spreading statements known to be incorrect; Art. 20(1) ICCPR requires States to prohibit propaganda for war by law; the Friendly Relations Declaration records a duty to refrain from propaganda for wars of aggression. More recent instruments – UN resolutions, the EU Digital Services Act and rules on political advertising and AI-generated content – address platforms, recommender systems and foreign interference in elections. All operate alongside freedom of expression under Art. 19 ICCPR, which permits restrictions only if provided by law and necessary and proportionate to a legitimate aim.

• Definitions. The UN Secretary-General noted in 2022 that there is no universally accepted definition of disinformation.
• Non-intervention. Germany's 2021 position paper considers that large-scale disinformation campaigns targeting elections may constitute prohibited intervention; other national positions address the coercion element differently or not at all.
• Old treaties, new media. Commentators differ on whether the 1936 Convention applies beyond radio and can ground inter-State claims.
• Platform regulation. The EU institutions present DSA risk obligations as protecting civic discourse; some commentators and platform operators have raised concerns about effects on freedom of expression.

• Broadcasting in the Cause of Peace Convention (1936) – hostile and false broadcasts.
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966) – expression; propaganda for war.
• Friendly Relations Declaration (1970) – propaganda for wars of aggression.
• Genocide Convention (1948) – incitement to genocide.
• UN resolutions on countering disinformation – General Assembly and Human Rights Council.
• EU Digital Services Act (2022) – systemic risks to electoral processes.
• EU Code of Conduct on Disinformation – self-regulatory commitments under the DSA.
• EU Political Advertising Regulation (2024) – transparency and targeting.
• EU Artificial Intelligence Act (2024) – manipulative AI and deep fakes.
• EU sanctions regime on Russia's destabilising activities (2024) – EU sanctions with an express criterion on information manipulation and interference.

• Use of force, intervention and cyber operations
• International criminal law
• Data and surveillance
• Timeline · Glossary