International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)
As of 30 September 2026. Information only, not legal advice – see the disclaimer.
| Full title | International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) |
| Type | Treaty |
| Adopted by | UN General Assembly, resolution 2200A (XXI) |
| Adopted | 16 December 1966 |
| Legal status | In force since 23 March 1976; 175 States parties (Human Rights Committee, 19 March 2026; most recent ratification: Oman, December 2025); binding on States parties |
| Official text | OHCHR – ICCPR |
| Subject area | Propaganda, disinformation and elections; Data and surveillance |
Overview
The ICCPR is the principal universal treaty on civil and political rights. Its implementation is monitored by the Human Rights Committee, which issues general comments, concluding observations on State reports and, under the First Optional Protocol, views on individual communications. Articles 17 (privacy), 19 (freedom of opinion and expression) and 20 (prohibition of propaganda for war and of advocacy of hatred constituting incitement) are referred to in debates on surveillance, content regulation, internet restrictions, disinformation and hostile information operations. Article 20(1) is one of the few provisions in a universal treaty that expressly requires States to prohibit a category of speech related to war.
Art. 17 – No one shall be subjected to arbitrary or unlawful interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to unlawful attacks on his honour and reputation; everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks. The Human Rights Committee addressed Art. 17 in General Comment No. 16 (1988).
Art. 19 – Protects the right to hold opinions without interference (Art. 19(1)) and freedom of expression, including the freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, through any media (Art. 19(2)). Restrictions must be provided by law and necessary for respect of the rights or reputations of others, or for the protection of national security, public order, public health or morals (Art. 19(3)).
Art. 20(1) – “Any propaganda for war shall be prohibited by law.”
Art. 20(2) – “Any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence shall be prohibited by law.”
Art. 2(1) – States parties undertake to respect and ensure the Covenant rights to all individuals within their territory and subject to their jurisdiction; the extraterritorial reach of this obligation, including for surveillance, is discussed.
Human Rights Committee, General Comment No. 34 (Art. 19), adopted 2011 (CCPR/C/GC/34):
Art. 19 protects all forms of expression, including electronic and internet-based modes (para. 12); States should take account of the transformation of communication through internet and mobile-based systems (para. 15).
Restrictions must meet a three-part test: provided by law, for a legitimate aim listed in Art. 19(3), and necessary and proportionate (para. 22).
Restrictions on websites and other internet-based dissemination systems are permissible only to the extent compatible with Art. 19(3); “generic bans on the operation of certain sites and systems are not compatible with paragraph 3” (para. 43).
Laws penalising the expression of opinions about historical facts are incompatible with the Covenant (para. 49).
Arts 19 and 20 are compatible with and complement each other; a limitation justified on the basis of Art. 20 must also comply with Art. 19(3) (paras 50–52).
Human Rights Committee, General Comment No. 11 (Art. 20), adopted 29 July 1983:
Propaganda for war under Art. 20(1) extends to propaganda threatening or resulting in an act of aggression or breach of the peace contrary to the UN Charter; it does not prohibit advocacy of the sovereign right of self-defence or the right of peoples to self-determination and independence in accordance with the Charter.
To be effective, Art. 20 requires a law making clear that such propaganda and advocacy are contrary to public policy and providing an appropriate sanction.
The UN General Assembly, in resolution 68/167 of 18 December 2013 (“The right to privacy in the digital age”) and subsequent resolutions, affirmed that the rights people have offline must also be protected online, including the right to privacy. The Rabat Plan of Action (2012), developed in OHCHR-convened expert workshops, sets out a six-part threshold test for assessing incitement under Art. 20(2) (context, speaker, intent, content and form, extent of dissemination, likelihood including imminence). A number of States have entered reservations or interpretative declarations concerning Art. 20. In the context of hostile information operations, Art. 20(1) is invoked by some States and commentators as a basis for State obligations regarding war propaganda; others emphasise the limits imposed by Art. 19(3). See also the 1936 Broadcasting Convention (broadcasting_1936).
Recent developments
2025-03-26: Human Rights Committee adopts its annual report 2024–2025, recording 174 States parties to the Covenant (OHCHR).
2025-12: Oman ratifies the Covenant (Human Rights Committee, 19 March 2026).
2026-03-19: At the close of its 145th session the Human Rights Committee records 175 States parties to the Covenant and adopts its annual report (UN Geneva).
Sources
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